Vp shunt series. Oct 28, 2020 · OBJECTIVE.

Vp shunt series. A shunt redirects excess cerebrospinal fluid in the brain to another part of the body, allowing the brain’s enlarged ventricles to return to a more normal size. Andrew Kobets, M. Erin Miller MD discuss Ventriculoperitoneal (VP) shunts. Test characteristics of quick brain MRI for shunt evaluation in children: an alternative modality to avoid Feb 25, 2018 · This seems more like a shunt series vs a shuntogram. INFANTS-Do a Lateral Skull and a Babygram. Jul 17, 2024 · An overview of ventriculoperitoneal shunts (VP shunts) in adults, including anatomy, indications, surgical procedure and complications. Twenty-three studies were obtained in 15 patients in whom shunt An example of a normal VP shunt series. This month Brandon Friedman MD, Kelsey Patterson and L. Images of each shunt valve on standard radiography are provided. Raymond Pitetti, MD, MPH Objective: The malfunction of a ventricular shunt is one of the most common clinical problems encountered in pediatric neurosur-gery. Recent literature has called into question the diagnostic value of the SS for the detection of ventriculoperitoneal Ventriculoperitoneal (VP) shunting is one of the most common simple neurosurgical procedures. May 30, 2024 · Ventriculoperitoneal shunts As the number of implantable medical devices continues to proliferate rapidly, it will be essential for us to immediately recognize their radiographic features. , skull, neck, chest, and/or abdomen). Welcome to our comprehensive Ventricular Shunt Surgery Billing Guide for 2023. Intraabdominal pathology, such as peritoneal adhesions or recurrent peritonitis, necessitates placement or relocation to an alternative drainage site [5]. Approximate Synonyms History of revision of ventriculoperitoneal shunt (internal tube from brain to abdomen) History of ventriculoperitneal shunt revision Presence of programmable ventricular shunt or valve Presence of ventricular shunt Presence of ventricular shunt (drains fluid from the brain) Present On Admission Shunt dysfunction (e. Common problems associated with VP shunts include shunt malfunction and shunt infection. Shunt series including biplanar head (a and b), anteroposterior chest (c) and anteroposterior abdominal (d) radiographs demonstrating the ventriculoperitoneal shunt catheter throughout its course. ADDITIONAL COMMENTS: Be sure that anatomy overlaps on 3 films so entire shunt can be visualized. These self-guided educational slides were first published on EMGuideWire. The shunt series is performed on both adult and pediatric patients. When a patient presents with symptoms or signs suggestive of ventriculoperitoneal (VP) shunt malfunction, head CT scanning and a shunt series are ordered routinely. The most common treatment for hydrocephalus is the surgical placement of a medical device called a shunt. CONCLUSION. Four major manufacturers of Dec 31, 2023 · A small catheter is passed into a ventricle of the brain. VP shunt catheters are made of silicone-coated Silastic tubes, which are made to be inert and hardly Children with clinically suspected VP shunt failure should proceed directly to cross-sectional or nuclear imaging, as plain radiographic examinations have low sensitivity and significant false-negative rates for detecting shunt abnormalities in all-comers. D. Dec 31, 2023 · The cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) bathes the brain and spinal cord. Determining Settings of Programmable VP Shunts link to U Washington webpage Codman Hakim Shunt Valve Settings The Codman Hakim valve is a ventricular shunt valve which can be programmed to open at various CSF fluid pressure. If you look carefully, you can a thin catheter extending from the top of this patient’s CXR through the neck and chest to the upper abdomen (arrows). Pediatricians should know the signs and symptoms of hydrocephalus as well as complications of shunts to best evaluate and triage patients in their practice with a diagnosis of hydrocephalus and cerebrospinal fluid shunts. Jul 8, 2024 · Rick Abbott, M. Aug 13, 2025 · Ventriculoperitoneal (VP) shunts are devices used to shunt cerebrospinal fluid in the treatment of hydrocephalus. Recent literature has called into question the diagnostic value of the SS for the detection of ventriculoperitoneal An example of a normal VP shunt series. 1 Although shunt insertion is a common neurosurgical procedure, revision rates are high in the pediatric population and complication Mar 23, 2023 · The shunt series is a set of radiographic images performed to assess the location and integrity of a ventriculoperitoneal shunt. Mar 1, 2020 · When patients present to emergency departments (EDs) with symptoms suspicious for ventriculoperitoneal shunt malfunction, evaluation often includes imaging of the shunt with both computed tomography (CT) of the head without contrast and a plain radiograph “shunt series” (SS). This should be done as soon as hydrocephalus is recognized to give the child the best possible neurological outlook. Another catheter is attached to the pump and tunneled under the skin, May 1, 1998 · Most pediatric patients with hydrocephalus are treated with ventriculoperitoneal (VP) shunt placement. Johnson & Johnson; 2015. I suggest querying the doctor to clarify shunt series vs a shuntogram. Plain radiographic shunt series confirming appropriate positioning of the de novo inserted ventriculoperitoneal shunt (a – c). Clinical presentation in patients with shunt malfunction is typically nonspecific, and brain imaging often fails to show a change in ventricular size. Is there a specific code for "Shunt Series" to evaluate for shunt malfunction (skull, chest, and abdomen) The radiologist are using CPT 75809. The external portion of the catheter is connected to a valve that regulates the flow of CSF based on pressure. The external portion of the catheter is connected to a valve that regulates the Jan 1, 2021 · We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis to determine which commonly used imaging modalities; Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), Computed Tomography (CT), X-ray Shunt series or Optic Nerve Sheath Diameter (ONSD) ultrasound, are superior in evaluating shunt malfunction. com and peer reviewed Jul 24, 2009 · I am coding for a Radiology group in a hospital. Normal appearances of a VP shunt on a shunt series. Jul 1, 2025 · Departmental protocols will vary but the overall goal is to image the shunt in its entirety to assess for mechanical causes of shunt failure 1,2. Hydrocephalus is one of the most common neurosurgical issues affecting the pediatric population. Use of the shunt series should be limited t … The 1-year failure rate for VP shunts had been reported at around 40-50% for pediatric patients VP shunt malfunction remains the most frequent reason for shunt revisions and one of the most frequent complication Early recognition and treatment improves patient outcomes and decreases hospital stays Shunt systems manage hydrocephalus by redirecting CSF for absorption. blockage, disconnection, kink) should always be suspected in patients who present with symptoms and signs of intracranial haemorrhage. An in-depth knowledge of CSF shunt components, their failure modes, and the corresponding findings on anatomic imaging studies Transient ventriculoperitoneal shunt dysfunction in children with myelodysplasia and urinary bladder infection, Journal of Neurosurgery: Pediatrics, 102(2), 221-223. Dec 31, 2023 · Shunting, called ventriculoperitoneal shunting, is necessary to drain the excess fluid and relieve the pressure in the brain. The shunt series is a set of radiographic images performed to assess the location and integrity of a ventriculoperitoneal shunt. Radiology Cases of Ventriculoperitoneal Shunt Infected Axial CT without contrast of the brain shows a low density fluid collection around the VP shunt reservoir between the skull and the scalp. (A) Shunt series X-ray showing the distal end of the ventriculoperitoneal shunt traversing the caecum and the ascending colon into the transverse colon with the tip at the rectum. The objective of this article is to describe an approach to imaging CSF shunts. Treatment typically involves placement of a mechanical shunt to redirect cerebrospinal fluid, most commonly from the ventricle to the peritoneum. Figure 2. As experts in medical billing for shunt procedures, we understand the intricacies and challenges involved in billing and reimbursement for ventriculoperitoneal shunt surgeries and cerebral shunt surgeries. 1 fl Seizure Cushing's triad Differential Diagnosis Ventriculoperitoneal shunt problems Ventriculoperitoneal shunt obstruction Ventriculoperitoneal shunt overdrainage (Slit Ventricle Syndrome) Ventriculoperitoneal shunt infection Ventriculoperitoneal shunt mechanical failure Evaluation Shunt series CT scan without contrast Ventricular tap Background and objectives: Ventriculoperitoneal shunt (VPS) is usually the primary choice for cerebrospinal fluid shunting for most neurosurgeons, while ventriculoatrial shunt (VAS) is a second-line procedure because of historical complications. Most of the CSF is in the ventricles of the brain, which are large cavities within the brain which produce and reabsorb the CSF. This modality is useful for visualizing fractures of the tubing as well as disconnection or migration of the shunt tip. Indications: To test for patency of ventriculoperitoneal or ventriculoatrial shunt To test for distribution of chemotherapeutic drug when injection is via V-P reservoir Skull plates and aneurysm clip in keeping with prior aneurysm repair. 1 Whole-body ultra-low-dose CT allows detection of ventriculoperitoneal shunt complications with excellent diagnostic accuracy and diagnostic confidence. This procedure involves the administration of contrast material into the shunt, followed by imaging to assess the flow and functionality of the Ventriculoperitoneal or ventriculoatrial shunt malfunction is a common problem that is difficult to diagnose and manage. An important series of films for checking the integrity of a in-situ VP shunt. American Journal of Neuroradiology. g. Indications Departmental protocols will vary but the overall goal is to image the shunt in its entirety to assess Shunt Series for VP Shunt X-ray Guideline Routine: 8 views AP and LATERAL Abdomen AP and LATERAL Chest AP and LATERAL C-spine OBJECTIVE. The shunt patency is a study to determine if cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is actually flowing through the shunt system (valves and proximal and distal catheters). No fracture or discontinuity. Standard emergency department (ED) evaluation of suspected shunt malfunction consists of plain radiographs of the skull, neck, chest, and abdomen (shunt series) to look for mechanical breaks, kinks, and disconnections in the shunt, and a Dec 26, 2013 · Ventriculoperitoneal shunts are preferred by most neurosurgeons because of fewer complications and the relative ease of peritoneal access [6]. Prompt referral for neurosurgical intervention is recommended. Rapid MRI offers another way! This page includes the following topics and synonyms: Ventriculoperitoneal Shunt, Ventriculo-Peritoneal Shunt, VP Shunt, Ventriculoperitoneal Shunt Malfunction, CSF Shunt. A negative shunt series or any result (positive or negative) from CT, MRI, or ONSD will still require an emergent neurosurgical referral. Mar 1, 2014 · The purpose of this study is to estimate whether routine preoperative shunt series (POSS) lead to clinically relevant new information, that helps in the management of ventriculoperitoneal shunt (VPS) obstruction, focusing on its role in diagnosing mechanical causes of shunt obstruction. Jan 1, 2021 · We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis to determine which commonly used imaging modalities; Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), Computed Tomography (CT), X-ray Shunt series or Optic Nerve Sheath Diameter (ONSD) ultrasound, are superior in evaluating shunt malfunction. However, shunt malfunction is common and is usually caused by mechanical failure. We calculated the pooled Dec 31, 2023 · Ventriculoperitoneal shunting is often crucial for preventing serious brain damage in children with hydrocephalus. For the assessment of suspected VP shunt complications, LD-CT provides excellent sensitivity and higher diagnostic confidence with lower radiation exposure compared with SS. Shunt series, including biplanar head (a and b), anteroposterior chest (c), and anteroposterior abdominal (d) radiographs demonstrating the ventriculoperitoneal shunt catheter throughout its course. The purpose of this study is to provide a single reference for the identification of programmable shunt valves and the interpretation of programmable shunt valve settings. Indications Departmental protocols will vary but the overall goal is to image the shunt in its entirety to assess for mechanical causes of shunt failure . When shunt dysfunction is suspected, we are often asked to perform a radiographic ‘shunt series’, which comprises … Mar 1, 2000 · Investigators . However, in the last two decades, the use of LP These investigators re-viewed shunt data over a 30-year period, illustrating lower rates of obstruction and revision in their VP shunt series as compared with an LP shunt series. Codman Certas ® Plus Programmable Valve The Certas® Plus Programmable Valve is an implantable device that provides constant intraventricular pressure and drainage of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) for the management of hydrocephalus. Cody Stothers as he dives into a case-based review of Hydrocephalus and VP Shunts An example of a normal VP shunt series. As most VP shunt problems initially present to the emergency department, it is important for emergency physicians to be well-versed in managing them. The shunt series, which is a set of AP and lateral radiographs of the skull, chest, and abdomen, will reveal if any portion of the shunt has migrated or kinked, and is extremely specific for malfunction although not sensitive. If the initial shunt series is negative, CT should be considered to detect an occult break. Frontal radiograph of the cervical spine (edge-enhanced) shows a fracture of the ventriculo-peritoneal shunt drainage tube (black and white arrows) with caudal retraction of the distal fragment. Fractured VP Shunt. How does it differ from a shunt X-ray? When patients present to emergency departments (EDs) with symptoms suspicious for ventriculoperitoneal shunt malfunction, evaluation often includes imaging of the shunt with both computed tomography (CT) of the head without contrast and a plain radiograph “shunt series” (SS). Dec 26, 2013 · Ventriculoperitoneal shunts are preferred by most neurosurgeons because of fewer complications and the relative ease of peritoneal access [6]. As with previous ventricular shunts, this valve is surgically implanted over the skull near the burr hole for the catheter. Usually, a simple lateral skull X-ray helps to identify the type of valve and it Oct 28, 2020 · OBJECTIVE. Aug 1, 2010 · SUMMARY: The programmable CSF shunt valve has become an important tool in hydrocephalus treatment, particularly in the NPH population and in pediatric patients with complex hydrocephalus. In the operating room this fluid was found to be pus. Shunt Series for VP Shunt X-ray Guideline Routine: 8 views AP and LATERAL Abdomen AP and LATERAL Chest AP and LATERAL C-spine Lollis SS, Mamourian AC, Vaccaro TJ, Duhaime A-C. VP shunt in-situ. Ventriculoperitoneal shunts are placed for various reasons with some 30,000 inserted yearly. Images showing the various shunt settings are also available for reference. CPT 75809 refers to the shuntogram procedure, which is a radiological investigation aimed at evaluating previously placed indwelling nonvascular shunts, such as a LeVeen shunt or a ventriculoperitoneal shunt, as well as indwelling infusion pumps. blockage, disconnection, kink) should always be suspected in patients who present with symptoms and signs of intracranial hemorrhage. Complications discussed include mechanical failure, infection, ventricular loculation, overdrainage, and unique Sep 14, 2022 · VP shunt infections can present with GI symptoms, peritonitis, as well as pseudocyst formation (localized abdominal fluid collections) around the peritoneal catheter, which will be asymptomatic until enlarged substantially to cause abdominal pain. Since the emergence of hydrocephalus shunt therapy in the 1950s, cerebrospinal fluid diversion from the cerebral ventricles to the abdominal cavity (VP shunt/VPS) has dominated with an application frequency of over 70%. Differential Diagnosis Ventriculoperitoneal shunt problems Ventriculoperitoneal shunt obstruction Ventriculoperitoneal shunt overdrainage (Slit Ventricle Syndrome) Ventriculoperitoneal shunt infection Ventriculoperitoneal shunt mechanical failure Evaluation Shunt tap (only done by neurosurgeon unless critically high ICP and no surgeon available) Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) shunts, used primarily for treatment of hydrocephalus, are among the most commonly implanted neurosurgical devices. Fixed Differental Pressure Valves Aesculap Fixed Differential Pressure Valve Codman Fixed Differential Pressure Valves Medtronic Fixed Differential Pressure Valves Anti-Siphon Valves, Gravity Activated Valves Aesculap Gravity Activated Valves Chhabra Gravity Activated Valve Codman Gravity Diagnostic Radiology Routine Manual Gundersen Health System HEADWORK ROUTINES SKULL POSITIONING LINES VP SHUNT CHECK SHUNT CHECK SHUNT SERIES - MULTIVIEW HEADWORK POSITIONING HELP Management of sterile abdominal pseudocysts related to ventriculoperitoneal shunts, Journal of Neurosurgery: Pediatrics PED, 25(1), 57-61. Also called a cerebral sinus fluid (CSF), VP, or cerebral shunt Highest incidence of postoperative complications of any neurosurgical procedure Majority in the first 2 years (40% in the first year [1]) May drain into peritoneal cavity or less commonly the right atrium, pleural cavity, ureter, gallbladder Abstract Background: When patients present to emergency departments (EDs) with symptoms suspicious for ventriculoperitoneal shunt malfunction, evaluation often includes imaging of the shunt with both computed tomography (CT) of the head without contrast and a plain radiograph "shunt series" (SS). Imaging plays a pivotal role in assessing CSF shunt failure and determining the need for surgical revision. Shunt size or location complications due to patient growth: For infants shunted at birth, the ventricular catheter may have to be changed around two years to accommodate brain growth. The procedure involves placing contrast material into the valve of a shunt system and following the flow for appropriate clearing of contrast agent from the shunt tubing. VP shunt. Aug 23, 2023 · A ventriculoperitoneal (VP) shunt is a cerebral shunt that drains excess cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) when there is an obstruction in the normal outflow or there is a decreased absorption of the fluid. 3 ml) of a radiotracer into the shunt reservoir, the flow of CSF through the catheters and valve can be measured. illustrate radiographic appearances of the ventricular shunt system with programmable valves which are currently used in Europe and to assist radiologists in the identification of programmable shunt valves to complete the assessment of skull radiographs in patients with shunts. In this guide, we will provide you with the latest information on coding, reimbursement rates, and billing Despite the low sensitivity, a positive shunt series obviates the need for further imaging studies. Objective image noise values for the neck, thorax, and abdomen using two kVp/mA settings (80/10 and 100/10) reconstructed using hybrid IR and pure IR (d). A catheter is placed with its tip in the ventricle. Topics reviewed include the components and imaging appearances of the most com-mon types of shunts and the utility of different imaging modalities for the evaluation of shunt failure. Open in a new tab Shunt malfunction symptoms are protean, and additional negative work-ups for failure are also common Standard work-up for CSF shunt malfunction includes: Brain CT (non-contrast) Shunt series radiographs Sensitivity of brain CT for shunt malfunction is 54 to 83% History and clinical evaluation remain critical. Inclusion Criteria: patients less than 21 years old with symptoms of shunt malfunction. Certas® Plus products are designed to minimize unintended setting changes from magnetic interference, protecting the valve from unintended setting changes due to Radiologic Identification of VP-Shunt valves and adjustment The verification of shunt adjustment (so-called opening pressure) and also the primary identification of the implanted valve type can be a Problem in daily practice: Shunt pass is not always at hand and documents from external hospitals can be missing. The Current Procedural Terminology (CPT ®) code 75809 as maintained by American Medical Association, is a medical procedural code under the range - Diagnostic Radiology (Diagnostic Imaging) Procedures of the Veins and Lymphatics. Programmable CSF Shunt Valves: Radiographic Identification and Interpretation. The external portion of the catheter is connected to a valve that regulates the We would like to show you a description here but the site won’t allow us. If no contrast injection is performed by any doctor this is reported using the appropriate x-ray codes describing which anatomical areas were imaged (e. Introduction The ventriculoperitoneal shunt (VPS) is a device that diverts cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from the cranial vault to the abdominal cavity, or the peritoneum. Complications associated with ventriculoperitoneal (VP) shunts include infection, malfunction of the regulator, occlusion, fractures, and displacement Shunt dysfunction (e. If the initial shunt series is negative, CT should be considered to detect an occult bre Physical examination revealed a fluctuant and nontender left-sided lump along the track of the VP shunt. 5-fold increased risk of revision when compared with VP For further understanding on abdominal pain and VP shunts, consider watching our Ask the Expert Video Series on abdominal pain, suitable for all ages. CSF shunts have a high failure rate. Burns, M. Learn about VP, VA, VPL, and LP shunts, how they work, and when they’re used. Ventricular Shunt Reference The layout of this chapter is broken down by the manufacturer of the shunt, listed in alphabetical order. 2010;31 (7):1343-6. Apr 1, 2000 · Summary: We describe the adult radiographic shuntogram, a simple method to evaluate the function and patency of a ventriculoperitoneal or ventriculoatrial shunt. In pediatric patients, untreated hydrocephalus can lead to many adverse effects including increase irritabilities, chronic headaches, learning We would like to show you a description here but the site won’t allow us. This article addresses the management of hydrocephalus and the CSF shunts used to treat this entity. Apr 5, 2024 · Ventriculoperitoneal (VP) shunts are devices used to shunt cerebrospinal fluid in the treatment of hydrocephalus. . X-ray images of hydrocephalic shunt valves. Nov 15, 2017 · The shunt series refers to plain films visualizing the entire course of the VP shunt. By injecting a small volume (about 0. Right internal jugular line. This is a ventriculoperitoneal shunt, used to treat hydrocephalus. Investigators from 2 academic teaching institutions evaluated the usefulness of the shunt series in the work-up of such patients. I don't feel comfortable with this code due to the CPT code 75809 is for an X-ray procedure used to evaluate nonvascular shunts, helping healthcare providers assess the function and placement of the shunt. Nov 1, 2013 · VP Shunts have benefited many kids with Hydrocephalus, but unfortunately can have complications which often lead to CT scans. Mar 14, 2023 · Ever palpate the scalp of an altered patient to find a VP shunt you weren’t expecting? Have a febrile patient and wondering if it could be the cause? Join Dr. (B) Postoperative shunt series X-ray showing the revised distal end within the peritoneal cavity. Diagnosis: Ventriculoperitoneal shunt fracture with subcutaneous cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) collection. If CPV views ordered see VP Shunt Check. A shunt series for a VP shunt comprises of an AP and lateral skull and neck X-ray, AP chest X-ray and AP abdominal X-ray so the whole shunt tubing can be followed throughout its course. In this paper, we review the indications, complications, and pitfalls associated with ventriculoperitoneal (VP) shunts. The VP shunt series showed no radiographic abnormality of the VP shunt. Medtronic Strata: Codman Hakim: Codman Certas: Sophysa: Aesculap Miethke: Aeesculap proSA Reference: Lollis SS, Mamourian AC, Vaccaro TJ, Duhaime A-C. 17 According to their data, LP shunts were associated with a 3-fold increase in the risk of obstruction and a 2. The radiographic shuntogram is a simple procedure previously described in children that allows objective demonstration of Determining Settings of Programmable VP Shunts link to U Washington webpage Codman Hakim Shunt Valve Settings The Codman Hakim valve is a ventricular shunt valve which can be programmed to open at various CSF fluid pressure. The shunt series is performed on both adult and pediatric Background Info Ventriculoperitoneal (VP) shunt insertion remains the mainstay of treatment for hydrocephalus despite a high rate of complications In the United States alone, more than 30,000 procedures to relieve hydrocephalus are performed every year The 1-year failure rate for VP shunts had been reported at around 40-50% for pediatric patients Jul 1, 2025 · Hydrocephalus is a lifelong condition with a risk of exacerbation or complications related to treatment throughout childhood. CODMAN CERTAS Plus X-Ray Procedure Guide Brochure. Diagnosis: Ventriculoperitoneal shunt fracture with subcutaneous cerebrospinal uid (CSF) collection. In pediatric patients, untreated hydrocephalus can lead to many adverse effects including increase irritabilities, chronic headaches, learning Strata ™ adjustable pressure valves are part of a shunt system used to treat the symptoms of hydrocephalus. Yue EL, Meckler GD, Fleischman RJ, Selden NR, Bardo DM, Chu O'Connor AK, Vu ET, Fu R, Spiro DM. Oct 18, 2016 · Per imaging title "shunt series imaging done for possible ventriculoperitoneal shunt malfunction", imaging performed was frontal view of lower skull, neck, chest, abdomen, and pelvis, which was resulted all in one report. We calculated the pooled Bedside ultrasonography and a VP shunt radiograph series were performed. VA shunts can present with endocarditis Dx: Infection confirmed with CSF fluid analysis and cultures. The typical shunt consists of 3 components — (1) a silastic catheter placed through a burr hole into a ventrical to suction out CSF, (2) a subcutaneous one-way valve mechanism for directing flow, and 3) a distal catheter to transport CSF to a distal Ventriculoperitoneal shunting is surgery to treat excess cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in the cavities (ventricles) of the brain (hydrocephalus). Cerebral shunts are used to treat hydrocephalus. In contrast, the alternative drainage from the lumbar region (LP shunt/LPS) was suspected to be more prone to complications. Shunt obstructions may be confirmed with radioisotope examination or with fluoroscopically guided injection of iodinated contrast material into the shunt reservoir. Judiah G. A pump is attached to the catheter to keep the fluid away from the brain. Feb 12, 2022 · Several imaging modalities are used to evaluate a VP shunt. I need help with the "shunt series" coding. Bedside ultrasonography and a VP shunt radiograph series were performed. j5sgv 0pm 0h 3jzdey3 4cpk njksliu zigz zh vhytiy ef7x

Any unauthorized reproduction of articles, photographs, charts, etc. published on MANTANWEB is prohibited. Copyright belongs to MANTAN or its information providers.